Kusiak famously argued that an intelligent machine must have sensing (vision, vibration, temperature), perception (understanding the data), cognition (reasoning about the state), action (adjusting parameters), and learning (remembering the adjustment for next time). This is the very definition of a smart sensor in 2025.

Kusiak, A. (2001). Enterprise engineering: A systems approach. Elsevier.

Kusiak argues that "design" and "management" should not be separated in intelligent systems; the design of a product directly impacts the complexity of its management. The report covers: Knowledge-Based Systems